This month we talk about Collision Avoidance. Last time we talked about "Alcohol and Flying". Previous safety topics include Hypoxia,  Runway Incursions and "Land And Hold Short" operation. More topics will follow each month.

Collision Avoidance:

There is a wide variation between people; this creates a large degree to which people are susceptible to hypoxia. In general, it is said that flights below 10,000 MSL (day) and 7,000 MSL (night) do not need supplemental oxygen. The onset of hypoxia usually occurs slowly, and does not always have obvious symptoms. The first reactions to hypoxia are usually: impaired reactions, impaired color vision, confused thinking, poor judgment, unusual fatigue, and a dull headache. These symptoms may occur together or one at a time. There is also a possibility of a feeling of "well being", or euphoria, that occurs during the stages of hypoxia. 

As the aircraft climbs the symptoms (and dangers) get worse. The body usually gives you more signs of impending hypoxia. They include: tingling feeling on the skin, racing heart, blue lips and nails, fuzzy vision (especially inability to read small print), and tunnel vision. 

The major problem of hypoxia is the pilot’s inability, or perhaps "disinterest" to overcome the problem once it has started. A pilot that feels a sense of well being, and drossiness is not likely to try and correct the problem. At altitudes around 14,000 MSL the onset of hypoxia is not usually fatal to the persons in the aircraft. However, the situation may turn fatal later in the flight, such as running out of fuel, missing ATC instructions, flying into terrain, climbing to a higher (fatal altitude) loss of control of the aircraft, or other problems. It may be thought of the same concept of a drunk driver; the driver continues on the road even though they don't have the ability to drive safely. The drunk driver continues to drive however, despite the danger, because of their poor reasoning and decision-making. Simply put, that driver thinks that they are driving just fine. This occurs with a hypoxic pilot. If hypoxia is severe enough, they may not even notice (or care) about the problem and continue to fly.

To prevent hypoxia there is a rule of thumb. "Don't let hypoxia get its foot in the door." Carry supplemental oxygen. Don't gauge your hunger of oxygen by your body's feelings (it may be to late to fix). 
            1. Do not fly above 12,000 MSL unless you have supplemental oxygen.
            2. Use supplemental oxygen on ALL flights above 12,000 MSL. You may not realize that you need it, and it is a cheap insurance.
            3.  Use oxygen on flights at NIGHT above 7,000 MSL.
            4. Breathe normally.
            5. Don't use "chap stick". The petroleum and oxygen will spontaneously ignite, even without a spark!

How high is too high?

Around 12,500 mentioned before
Above 20,000 MSL vision deteriorates - may not see at all
Above 25,000 MSL unconsciousness or possible death

Who is susceptible to hypoxia?

Practice Hypoxia?

The FAA provides this opportunity through aviation physiology training, which is conducted at the FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute and at many military facilities across the United States, to attend the Physiological Training Program at the Civil Aeromedical Institute, Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center, Oklahoma City, OK, contact by telephone (405) 954-6212, or by writing Airmen Education Program Branch, AAM-420, CAMI, Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.

Runway Incursions: In the past years of aviation, there seems to have been a large number of accidents/incidents that are related to runway incursions. That is, accidents/incidents that occur because of an aircraft or ground vehicle that moves into an active runway. These accidents/incidents also include problems that occur solely on taxiways; however, the problems that occur on runways tend to be more dangerous because of the higher speeds and difficulty in maneuvering the landing or departing aircraft.  I might add that a large portion of runway incursions occur in daytime, VFR conditions in small GA aircraft. Often those aircraft have a student AND flight instructor on board.

Here are two examples of incursions that were gathered from a recent FAA/NTSB letter to all Flight Instructors.

----In January 1990, a Boeing 727 was inbound to Atlanta Hartsfield International Airport. Just ahead of the B-727 was a Beechcraft 100 (BE-10). The BE-10 landed, but before it could clear the runway, the B-727 touched down, over-took and collided with the BE-10. The BE-10 pilot was killed. The accident was classified as an operational - controller error.
----In November 1994, a McDonnell Douglas MD-80 was preparing to depart St. Louis International's runway 30R. Ground control assigned a Cessna C-441 to runway 31. The C-441 taxied onto Runway 30R instead of Runway 31. The MD-80 departing Runway 30R collided with the C-441 killing the two crewmembers and destroying the C-441. The accident was classified as pilot error.

It is the FAA's goal to reduce runway incursions by 15% of the 1997 level by the end of the year 2000. Here are some of suggestions to avoid runway incursion dangers.

Taxiing- During taxiing, the first thing that you can do for safety is LISTEN. Ground control's instructions may be misinterpreted or misheard. I suggest that you write instructions down if there is any question as to where you will be taxiing, especially if you are at an unfamiliar airport. Also, it is a good idea to verbally tell your instructor (or student) the taxiing instructions, instead of just saying, "ok...here we go", it would be safer to say "ok, we are going to runway 19 Right, but holding short of runway 32 Left." This verbal communication not only lets the other person know what you will be doing, but also refreshes it in your own head. Saying things out loud does wonders for memory; I have seen pilots start their taxiing, and then stop midway, needing to ask ground control again as to where it was that they were actually supposed to go (it is better to ask however, than to just keep going and guess). Two heads are better than one. When both pilots know the information, there will be two people making sure that the aircraft taxies exactly where it should be. Do not assume that the other person sitting next to you heard the instructions from the ground control. Intercoms work wonderfully, but still have their shortcomings, and both pilots do not always hear the controller’s instructions. This is especially important if aircraft has the ability to listen and transmit on two different frequencies/intercoms at the same time (the other person next to you may not have been listening to the same frequency). 

Ok, so you listened to the instructions and understand them. The next step to a safe taxi is to LOOK. This includes using your eyes inside and outside the cockpit. I highly recommend some form of airport diagram. These diagrams (usually in the form of paper) are available several ways. 1- Most large general aviation airports have designed and printed their own airport diagram. Finding a copy of the diagram is usually as easy as visiting the control tower, FSS, large flight schools or even an airport manager. 2- AOPA has more than 2,500 diagrams of the larger airports in its Airport Directory (free to members). 3- There are many more professional companies out there that make and sell airport diagrams (Sporty's, Jeppesen, Etc) and are worth the money. 4- If there is no diagram out there already printed for you, make your own. It is not difficult to do. Sketch the runways and taxiways out on a piece of paper; if you make one that is nice enough, you could even sell them to your co-students for a few bucks. 

Now you are on you way, taxiing, reconfirming your taxi with the airport diagram. Remember to look outside as well. Airports, even some of the smaller, non-towered ones, have very clear markings as to what is a taxiway, runway, ramp, runup area etc. Know and understand your airports markings and signs. If you do not know them, refer to the Aeronautical Information Manual and refresh your memory. If you are unclear at any time, especially when taxiing across any runway, stop and ask the controller again. They might seem a little annoyed at you for asking, but they will definitely be angrier if you should happen to taxi onto a runway/taxiway that you shouldn't have. The other head and eyes sitting next to you should also be participating in the taxiing, rather than looking at a magazine or playing with the GPS. The same goes for you. Do not sit idle even if the other person is taxiing. Let her/him know if they do anything that is questionable.

Runup/Takeoff- Ok. So you made it to the runway, and are at the runup area. Good. In the runup area, make sure that you are out of the way of other aircraft that may need to taxi past you. One of my biggest pet peeves is a person who taxies up to the "hold short" line, blocking ANYONE and EVERYONE from entering or exiting that taxiway. It is not only unsafe, but also somewhat rude. There may have been one or more aircraft that requested departure and may have even received clearance to takeoff, but must sit idle due to the taxiway/runway being blocked. Not fun. I once had to sit in between two active runways because of a pilot that was blocking my exiting taxiway. I was delayed 10-15 minutes, in a "not-so-comfortable" place on the airport. Finally I was able to taxi onto the runway, taxi down that runway, and exit on a different taxiway. To make things worse, the aircraft that was blocking me was not on anyone's frequency because they did not know the proper tower freq. It made me want to walk up to that aircraft, tap on the window, shaking my finger at him, and say "No! No! No! Bad! Bad! Bad!" Enough ranting on that subject. 

The runup is done, and you have asked for a departure clearance. " Cessna 1234 cleared for takeoff on runway 19L". As you start towards the runway, make sure of three things: 1- make sure that you are clear of any aircraft on the ground and that your prop blast is not going to be directed towards anyone. 2- Ask yourself BEFORE you cross that hold short bar, if the clearance made sense. If you remember from above, you were going to taxi to 19R, but were cleared to takeoff on 19L. STOP! Ask the controller if they misspoke or you misunderstood. Find out the discrepancy. I was recently cleared to takeoff on runway that I was not using. The runway that I was cleared for had an aircraft touching down on it. Make certain that you are cleared for EXACT runway that you should be using. 3- Make sure that the area is clear. Look LEFT and RIGHT. Look for an aircraft that is not supposed to be where it is. Pilots DO land on incorrect runways sometimes.

Ok. Now you made it into the air. Eventually you have to land. Here are some tips I find helpful for making sure that you do not have a runways incursion on the landing portion of your safe flight. The basics are the same. LISTEN and LOOK. Listen to the approach controller (if you are using one) and listen for what runway you are "expected to be cleared for." This will prepare you several miles out. Remember that airport diagram? Review it. Know where the FBO (or wherever you are  parking) is located on the airport, and visualize what taxiway you would like to exit. After contacting tower, make sure that you once again know what runway you are cleared for. You may want to write this clearance down to in case you forget it. Also, if there are any "Land And Hold Short" (LAHSO) instructions make sure you understand them. LAHSO situations are discussed here. They may have switched your landing runway from what approach told you to expect. On final approach verbally tell yourself (an others sitting next to you) what runway you are going to land on. Like I said before. It not only preps you, but also the person next to you. On short final look ahead of you. Check to see if anyone is on your runway. The aircraft that is ON the runway is usually pretty obvious. But, also look for the aircraft that is holding short of the runway, which may accidentally roll onto the runway for one reason or another. Short finals are the place where it is most likely that you would need to perform a go-around. This is why it is important to practice go-around every so often. Your aircraft is slow and dirty, and at fifty feet off of the ground an aircraft taxies in onto your runway. Are you prepared for that scenario? You need to be. As you touch down, remember it is not over yet. Slow the aircraft down and turn off of the runway (ATC might ask you to use a particular exit) before you start messing with things inside the airplane. After you are well clear of the runway, and contacted (or monitoring) a controller, then you can perform a post-landing checklist.

Taxi-back- The rules of taxing to the runway are the same for heading back. But you are tired and anxious to get the plane parked. Take a few extra minutes and safely (slowly) taxi back and secure your aircraft.  

Land And Hold Short (LAHSO): These operations include landing and holding short of: intersecting runway, intersecting taxiway, or some other area that is a designated point on a runway other than the above. LAHSO operations are used by ATC to help smoothen the flow of traffic in and out of the airport. LAHSO operations are usually used at larger airports that tend to have a more complicated runway/taxiway system. There are certain pilot and controller responsibilities that should be followed to insure the safe use of LAHSO's. Here are those responsibilities that should be followed (as taken from the AIM).

At controlled airports, air traffic may clear a pilot to land and hold short. Pilots may accept such a clearance provided that the pilot-in-command determines that the aircraft can safely land and stop within the Available Landing Distance (ALD). ALD data are published in the special notices section of the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) and in the U.S. Terminal Procedures Publications. Controllers will also provide ALD data upon request. Student pilots or pilots not familiar with LAHSO should not participate in the program.

The pilot-in-command has the final authority to accept or decline any land and hold short clearance. The safety and operation of the aircraft remain the responsibility of the pilot. Pilots are expected to decline a LAHSO clearance if they determine it will compromise safety.

To conduct LAHSO, pilots should become familiar with all available information concerning LAHSO at their destination airport. Pilots should have, readily available, the published ALD and runway slope information for all LAHSO runway combinations at each airport of intended landing. Additionally, knowledge about landing performance data permits the pilot to readily determine that the ALD for the assigned runway is sufficient safe LAHSO. As part of a pilot's preflight planning process, pilots should determine if their destination airport has LAHSO. If so, their preflight planning process should include an assessment of which LAHSO combinations would work for them given their aircraft's required landing distance. Good pilot decision making is knowing in advance whether one can accept a LAHSO clearance if offered.

If, for any reason, such as difficulty in discerning the location of a LAHSO intersection, wind conditions, aircraft condition, etc., the pilot elects to request to land on the full length of the runway, to land on another runway, or to decline LAHSO, a pilot is expected to promptly inform air traffic, ideally even before the clearance is issued. A LAHSO clearance, once accepted, must be adhered to, just as any other ATC clearance, unless an amended clearance is obtained or an emergency occurs. A LAHSO clearance does not preclude a rejected landing.

A pilot who accepts a LAHSO clearance should land and exit the runway at the first convenient taxiway (unless directed otherwise) before reaching the hold short point. Otherwise, the pilot must stop and hold at the hold short point. If a rejected landing becomes necessary after accepting a LAHSO clearance, the pilot should maintain safe separation from other aircraft or vehicles, and should promptly notify the controller.

Controllers need a full read back of all LAHSO clearances. Pilots should read back their LAHSO clearance and include the words, "HOLD SHORT OF (RUNWAY / TAXIWAY / OR POINT)" in their acknowledgment of all LAHSO clearances. In order to reduce frequency congestion, pilots are encouraged to read back the LAHSO clearance without prompting. Don't make the controller have to ask for a read back!

LAHSO Situational Awareness-1. Situational awareness is vital to the success of LAHSO, Situational awareness starts with having current airport information in the cockpit, readily accessible to the pilot. (An airport diagram assists pilots in identifying their location on the airport, thus reducing requests for "progressive taxi instructions" from controllers.)
2. Situational awareness includes effective pilot-controller radio communication. 
3. For those airplanes flown with two crewmembers, effective intra-cockpit communication between cockpit crewmembers is also critical. There have been several instances where the pilot working the radios accepted a LAHSO clearance but then simply forgot to tell the pilot flying the aircraft.
4. Situational awareness also includes a thorough understanding of the airport markings, signage, and lighting associated with LAHSO. These visual aids consist of a three-part system of yellow hold-short markings, red and white signage and, in certain cases, in-pavement lighting. Visual aids assist the pilot in determining where to hold short, FIG 4-3-4, FIG 4-3-5, FIG 4-3-6 depict how these markings, signage, and lighting combinations will appear once installed (REFER TO THE AIM). Pilots are cautioned that not all airports conducting LAHSO have installed any or all of the above markings, signage, or lighting.
5. Pilots should only receive a LAHSO clearance when there is a minimum ceiling of 1,000 feet and 3 statute miles visibility. The intent of having "basic" VFR weather conditions is to allow pilots to maintain visual contact with other aircraft and ground vehicle operations. Pilots should consider the effects of prevailing inflight visibility (such as landing into the sun) and how it may affect overall situational awareness. Additionally, surface vehicles and aircraft being taxied by maintenance personnel may also be participating in LAHSO, especially in those operations that involve crossing an active runway.